Peganum Harmala

African roux is commonly used in North American English, and harmel is used in India, Algeria, and Morocco. Known as اسپند in Persian, it is transliterated as espand or ispand, but can also be pronounced or transliterated as sepand, sipand, sifand, esfand, isfand, aspand, or espand, depending on the source or dialect. The Persian word اسپند is also the name of the last month of the year, roughly March, in the traditional Persian calendar. It derives from the Middle Persian word spand, which along with the English spinach, is ultimately thought to derive from the Proto-Iranian *spanta-, "sacred" (Avestan 𐬯𐬞𐬆𐬧𐬙𐬀, spəṇta, "sacred", Middle (compare Persian spenāg). "sacred"), which itself is ultimately thought to derive from the Proto-Indo-European *ḱwen-. Known as Spirani in Pashto. In Urdu it is known as harmal, ispand or isband. In Turkish it is called "Uzerlik". In Chinese, 驼驼蒿, tuó tuó hāo, or 骆驼蓬, luo tuó peng. In Spain it is known as hármala, alharma, or gamarza, among dozens of local names. In French it was known as "harmal" and in classical antiquity in Aramaic as "šabbārā" (Judeo-Babylonian Aramaic: שברא; In later Eastern Aramaic, it was borrowed from Middle Persian as "speder".

It is a perennial herb, a vegetative semi-pigmentous plant that dies in winter but regenerates from the rootstock the following spring. It can grow up to about 0.8 meters (3 feet) tall, but is usually about 0.3 meters (1 foot) tall. The whole plant is hairless (hairless). The plant has a bad taste and gives off a foul odor when crushed.

Numerous erect to spreading stems grow from the crown of the rootstock in spring, branching into scattered tufts.

Plant roots can reach depths of up to 6.1 meters (20 feet) if the soil in which they are growing is very dry. Roots can grow up to 2 cm (0.8 in) thick.

The leaves are alternate and sessile, with 1.5–2.5 mm (0.06–0.10 in) long, bristly stipules at the base. The leaf blade is dissected more than once into 3-5 thin linear to lanceolate grayish leaves. Forks are irregular. The lobes are smooth-edged, 3-5 cm (1.2-2.0 in) long, 1-5 mm (0.04-0.20 in) wide, and terminate in a point.

It bears solitary flowers opposite the leaves at the top of the branches. It blooms from March to October in India, April to October in Pakistan, May to June in China, March to April in Palestine, and May to July in Morocco. The flowers are white or yellowish white and about 2-3 cm in diameter. Greenish veins are visible on the petals. It has filamentous pedicels 1.2 cm long. Flowers 5 (10-)12 to 15(-20) mm long, linear, with pointed, glabrous sepals, often divided into lobes, but when completely divided Or they may be split only at the ends. Petals 5, oblong, obovate to oblong, (10-)14-15(-20)mm long, (5-)6-8(-9)mm wide, ending in obtuse apex . . Flowers are hermaphroditic, having both male and female organs. Flowers usually have 15 stamens (rarely fewer). These have 4-5 mm long filaments with an enlarged base. The 6 mm long anthers fixed on the spine are longer than the filaments. The ovary is superior, has 3 lobes, ends in a style 8-10 mm long, and the end 6 mm in cross-section is triangular or 3 keeled. The ovary is glabrous and surrounded by 5-lobed nectaries in a regular pattern. Flowers produce only a small amount of nectar. Nectar is rich in hexose sugars. It contains a relatively low concentration of amino acids, among which glutamic acid, tyrosine and proline are particularly high, the last amino acid being tasted and preferred by many insects. It also contains relatively high concentrations of (four) alkaloids compared to flowers of other species, including the toxins harmarol and harmine. The proportion and concentration of alkaloids in nectar indicate adaptive reasons for the presence of alkaloids unlike in other plant organs.

P. harmara has small, tricolupate pollen grains with a rough, reticulated surface. Exine has Sexine which is thicker than Nexine. These grains are well distinguishable from the pollen of the Pakistani relative (Nitralia).

In China, it bears fruit between July and November. The fruit is a dry, round seed capsule about 6–10(-15) mm in diameter. These seed capsules have 3 chambers and hold over 50 seeds. The edges of the fruit are usually slightly indented and retain a persistent style.

The seeds are dark brown to blackish brown, slightly curved, triangular, about 2 mm (0.08 in) long, and slimy on the surface. The endosperm is oily.

Cells have 24 chromosomes (2n), but 22 are sometimes found.

Peganum harmara is native to a wide area from Morocco in North Africa, Spain and Italy in Europe, to Serbia, Romania (probably), Dagestan and Kazakhstan in the north, Mauritania (probably) in the south, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Pakistan. doing. and east to west Mongolia, northern China and possibly Bangladesh. It is a common weed in Afghanistan, Iran, parts of Israel, eastern and central Anatolia (Turkey), Morocco, and in Africa it is known in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt. It probably won't happen in Mauritania. In Morocco this is very common and occurs all over the country except Western Sahara. In Algeria, it is found mainly in the north bordering Morocco and Tunisia, and absent in the southern and central regions. Fairly common throughout Tunisia. In Libya, it is found especially in the waters around Benghazi and is not abundant. In Egypt it grows in the Sinai Mountains and has been recorded in the eastern part of the eastern desert region, but is rarely collected in the central and western part of the Mediterranean coast. In Europe it is native to Spain, Corsica (controversial) and most of Russia. Serbia, Moldova, Ukraine (especially Crimea), Romania (possibly imported), Bulgaria, Greece (including Crete and Cyclades), Cyprus, Turkey (Thrace), Southern Italy (including Sardinia but excluding Sicily). It also grows wild in the Caucasus region such as Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia. In the Iberian Peninsula, it is absent in Portugal and Andorra, but not uncommon in Spain, especially in the southeast, the Ebro Lowlands, the inland valleys of the Duero and Tajo rivers, but rare in Andalusia (southern). It does not occur in the Balearic and Canary Islands, the west along the Portuguese border, Galicia, the north coast, or the northern mountains. It is found throughout most of Thrace and Anatolia in Turkey, but is absent. From the northern Black Sea coast. It is abundant in some areas of southern and central Anatolia. In Israel, it is most commonly found around the Dead Sea, the Judean mountains and deserts, the Negev and surrounding areas (including areas such as Jordan and Saudi Arabia), but is rare or uncommon. It is very rare in the northern mountains, Galilee, coastal regions and the Arava Valley. It grows in the arid regions of the northern half of India, but is probably native only to Kashmir and Ladakh. It also lives in Bangladesh and may be of Bangladesh origin. Controversy continues as to its distribution in China. According to the 2008 Chinese Flora, it is native to northern China: Gansu, western Hebei, western Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, Qinghai, northern Shanxi, Tibet, and Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region. The 2017 Chinese inventory lists it as being limited to Inner Mongolia, Ningxia, and Gansu provinces.

It has been added to the Global Register of Alien and Invasive Species in the countries of South Africa, Mexico, France and Ukraine, but no adverse effects have been reported in these countries. In most Ukrainian and other literature, the plant is considered native to Ukraine. Sources disagree about the rare collection of coastal Romania, but many believe it was introduced. At least seven outbreaks have been documented in South Africa, but none have been registered in Mexico (as of 2017). As of 2020, it is listed as a plant introduced to South Africa on the 'Plants of South Africa' website of the South African National Institute for Biodiversity. One database says it occurs as an invasive species in Hungary. In France, it was once found infrequently on the Mediterranean coast of the Cote d'Azur, and was once thought to be due to an accidental introduction. It has rarely been found elsewhere in France in the past. According to the European Flora, Corsica has a native population, but according to Terra Botanica, it does not exist in Corsica, whether native or not. In the United States, it was first planted in 1928 by farmers in New Mexico. I would like to manufacture a dye called "Turkish Red" from the seeds. From here the plant spread to much of southern New Mexico and the Big Bend area of ​​Texas. Further outbreaks have occurred from east of Los Angeles, California to the southernmost tip of Nevada. Outside of these regions, distribution within the United States is local rather than continuous. As of 2019, southern Arizona (at least three adjacent counties), northeastern Montana (two adjacent counties), northern Nevada (Churchill County), and Oregon (the town of Prineville in the Oregon High Desert). ), and possibly also in Washington State. "African roux is so drought tolerant that it can replace the salt bushes and grasses native to the salt desert scrublands of the western United States." The species is not included in the 2004 Mexican Introduced Plant List, although it suggests that rue has spread to parts of northern Mexico.

It grows in dry regions of the United States. It is considered a halophyte. Known at altitudes of 300-2400 m in Kashmir and Ladakh, 400-3600 m in China, 0-1500 m in Turkey and 0-1200 m in Spain. It grows slightly in China. Salty sands near oases and dry grasslands in desert areas. In Spain, it is found in abandoned fields, garbage tips, stony slopes, along road edges, in tilled and processed soil, and in rough, saline scrublands. In Morocco it is said to grow in grasslands, arid coasts, dry uncultivated fields and ruins. A study in Morocco found that when found in association with certain artemisia genera, Noahea mucronata, and Anabasis aphila, it could be used as an indicator species for rangelands degraded by agricultural activity. In Israel it is common, along with Anabasis syriaca and Haloxylon scoparium, in low-lying, semi-shrubbery grassland ecosystems, with little vegetation coverage in dry years and growing on saline loess-derived soils. It is the dominant plant. Leontis leontopetalum and Ixiolyrion tataricum appear here during the rainy season. It also grows in the semi-steppe scrublands of Israel, the woodlands and scrublands of the Mediterranean, and deserts. Between 800 and 1300 m elevation on the sandstone slopes of the mountains around Petra, Jordan, there are open Mediterranean steppe forests dominated by Juniperus phenacea and mugwort, with occasional trees of Pistacia Atlantica and Crataegus aronia, and are commonly Typical shrubs include daphnia. Maou, Ononis Yamatris, Hamada Akkesira, Anabasis articulata. This habitat is further aggravated (already degraded) by the invading P. harmara overgrazing with Noaea mucronata. Commonly seen with Euphorbia virgata at the foot of Mount Ararat in Idur province, Turkey. Flowers are pollinated by insects. Little is known about pollinators. Year-long surveys conducted around the town of St. Catherine in the Ertuğr Mountains of southern Sinai found that P. harmala was exclusively pollinated by the domesticated bee Apis mellifera, It is possible that these bees have been replaced by native bees. Flower morphology, nectar quantity and composition – high hexane sugar content, presence of toxic alkaloids and high proline content suggest pollination by short-tongued bees (see pollination syndrome). As for seed dispersal, it is considered to be varochor. According to Mongolian studies, its seeds are disseminated exclusively by human activity, whereas Peganum multisectum, seen as a variant or synonym of this species, is disseminated only by water currents. It has been found inhabiting the stems of P. harmala in places such as Turkey. It feeds only on P. harmara. When the above-ground parts of the plant begin to die off in autumn, the adults retreat to overwinter in the soil beneath the root canopy or in old larval tunnels in dead stems. Females that emerge in spring (May in Turkey) make small holes in the stems of budding plants and lay eggs there. Hatched larvae burrowed medially toward the pith. The beetle somehow infects the surrounding tissue within the tunnel with a fungus, Fusarium oxysporum. Infected plant tissue turns black and is used as a food source until adults and their larvae are ready to pupate in stem tunnels. It has been proposed as a candidate for use in the biological control of P. harmara, and its related species, T. euphorbia, is approved for use against invasive euphorbia in the United States.

The plant is so popular in Persian cultural traditions that it is also a hallucinogen, so linguists David Flattery and Martin Schwartz wrote a book in 1989 in which the plant is mentioned in Zoroastrianism, Avestan.・Theorized that it was Haoma. The transcribed word haoma is probably related to the Vedic word soma. These names refer to magical, purported entheogenic plants/drinks mentioned in ancient Indo-Iranian texts, but whose exact identity has been lost to history. The plant was first recognizably described under the name πήγανον ἄγριον (peganone aglion). Dioscorides states that it is called μῶλυ (molly) in parts of Anatolia (although Dioscorides distinguishes the "real" μῶλυ as a separate bulbous plant). Galen later described the plant by the name μῶλυ, and after Dioscorides it was known by many other names, such as ἅρμολαν, almoran (harmara), πήγανον ἄγριον, in Syria βησασὰν, bethasan (besasa). I am referring to For most of subsequent European history, Galen was regarded as the pinnacle of human medical knowledge. Therefore, in the early Middle Ages, this herb was known as molly or herba immorum. Ibn al-Awam, an Arab agronomist from Seville, Spain, in the 12th century, wrote that the seeds were used to bake bread. Smoke is used to speed fermentation and aid flavor (he usually quotes an old author). By the mid-16th century, Dodoens describes how pharmacies sold this plant under the name harmel as a type of super-strong roux.

In 1553, Rembert Dodoens illustrated and described the plant (in 1583 he republished it with better illustrations, called it Harmara, and based his work on Galen and Dioscorides). In 1596 Gaspard Bouin published his Phytopinax, which attempted to list all known plants in order. manner. He identifies Ruta sylvestris Dioscorides as a species of St. John's wort. Later, in Pinax Theatri Botanici of 1623, he attempted to classify synonyms for all names previously published by botanists early in history. In this work, he classifies ruta into five species, distinguishing the plant from its three clustered fruits, large white flowers, and the fact that it is known only as a wild (rather than cultivated) plant. distinguishes it from other plants. He attributes his "Ruta sylvestris flore magno albo" (= Peganum harmara) (not all writers listed below) to the Harmara of Taberna Emontanus, Dodoens and Crucius. Harmala Ciriaca by Matthias de Lobel. Hamel of Andreas Caesalpinus and Conrad Gessner (in his report on the flora of the Ottoman Empire). Ruta Silvestris Harmala (in another work) by Pietro Andrea Mattioli and Crucius. Valerius Cordus (Commentary on Dioscorides), Gesner (Hortus), Ruta Silvestris of Aloysius Anguillara. In 1753 Carl Linnaeus named this species Peganum harmala. He cites the species as being based on Bauan's 1623 Pinax Theatri Botanici and Rembert Dodoens' 1583 Stirpium Historiae Pemptades Sex.

In 1954, Brian Lawrence Burt and Patricia Lewis were designated a "cult". In Horto Upsaliensi (Lin!) it is used as a lectotype of this kind. This lectotype appears to be on two sheets (621.1 and 621.2) in Linnaeus' herbarium, was not part of a single collection and therefore belonged to ICBN Art. 9.15 (Vienna Code) did not apply. In 1993, Mohamed Nabil El Hadidi designated it as "Clifford Herbarium 206, Peganum No. 206". 1', preserved in the British Museum of Natural History as a lectotype of P. Harmara.

Peganum harmara var. galamantum – P. harmara var. As of 2010, it was still recognized as occurring in Tunisia (along with var. typicum), although other studies did not recognize the distinction. grandiflorum – El Hadidi described P. harmala var. Named grandiflorum for the Flora of Iran in 1972, based on herbarium material collected by H. Bobek in Tal Shadad, Kerman Province, Iran in 1956, the variety is said to have grown in both Iran and Afghanistan. It is Then, at least as recorded by GBIF, it was collected once more in 1980 near the banks of the Ebro River, about halfway down the river from Zaragoza, Spain to the sea. It is not mentioned in the Iberica flora. multisecta – first described by Karl Maximovich from Qinghai in 1889. var may be misspelled. Multidisciplinary. It occurs in the Dzungaria, Hexi, Qaidam Basin, Ordos and Altai regions of China and Mongolia. In China, it occurs in Inner Mongolia, northern Shanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai, Xinjiang, and Tibet (Chinese flora claims it is endemic to China). It can be distinguished by its sepals (referred to as 'calyx leaves' in one study), which are incised with 3 to 5 lobes rather than complete as in the original form (P. nigellastrum also has this feature), but more prominently, the calyx leaves are divided into 5 to 7 thin, cord-like leaves, which may be more finely cleft or tri-divided. I have. Leaves are usually divided into 3 to 5 lobes. Individual leaves are 1.5 to 3 mm wide, but this variety always has 5 or more leaves that are 1 to 1.5 mm wide. The nominated type has a seed with a depressed surface, while the variant has a seed. Multisectors have convex seeds. In addition, the stems of this cultivar grow lying on the ground, while the nominees have erect stems and pubescent stems when young rather than always hairless. Some consider it better to classify it as a separate species P. multisectum (fide Bobrov, 1949). Others consider this synonymous with the noun form. rothschildianum – First described in 1927 by cactus expert Franz Buxbaum as P. rothschildianum from North Africa. It was included as a breed by Rene Mer in 1953. It is not recognized in Tunisia or anywhere else. stenophyllum – This variety is not recognized in the Pakistani flora, but is still recognized by some authorities. Pierre-Edmond Boissier described the plant in 1867 and it has been found growing in Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Tajikistan and the northern Caucasus. In India, it is found in Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Karnataka. It can be distinguished from the nomenclature by having finer leaves with narrower leaves, shorter sepals, and broader shaped seed capsules.

In the United States it is considered an invasive noxious weed in the following states: Arizona (prohibited noxious weed), California (noxious weed designation), Colorado (noxious weed designation), Nevada (noxious weed designation) weeds), New Mexico (class B noxious weeds), Oregon (class A weeds, in quarantine). This allows landowners to exterminate pests on their land or be fined, allowing them to use government subsidies to purchase herbicides. It is illegal to sell this type of plant in the above states. Since 2005, the cultivation, possession, or sale of this species has been illegal in Louisiana with a warning. Since 2005, the possession of the seeds, the plant itself, and the alkaloids harmine and harmaline contained therein has also been illegal in France. In Finland, the plant is officially registered as a medicinal plant and requires a doctor's prescription to obtain it. Harmaline is illegal in Canada. Harmara alkaloids are illegal in Australia.

It is a common weed in some areas. In China, it is considered a noxious weed that invades overgrazed areas. In the United States, where it is not native to, it is officially registered as a noxious weed or similar designation in Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, and Oregon. The invasion is invasive and very difficult to eradicate. Also known as an agricultural seed contaminant. It often causes livestock poisoning, especially during drought. Ingestion by animals causes fertility loss and abortion. Control is possible only with strong herbicides. Manually uprooting plants is nearly impossible, and there are currently no biological control methods awaiting approval. The rootstock contains starch that helps the plant survive defoliation, grows thick and very deep, and the plant canopy is safe below the surface.

The red dye "turkey red" obtained from the seeds (usually obtained from madder) is often used in western Asia for dyeing carpets. It is also used for dyeing wool. Extracting the seeds with water yields a yellow fluorescent pigment. Extraction with alcohol yields a red dye. Stems, roots and seeds can be used to create inks, stains and tattoos. According to one source, at one time the traditional Ottoman fez was dyed with an extract from this plant.

Neighboring countries such as Iran, Turkey and Azerbaijan hang or hang dried capsules taken from this plant in their homes and vehicles to protect against the "evil eye". It is widely used in Morocco to protect against gin (see Légey "Essai de Folklore marocain", 1926). Esfand (called Isband in Kashmiri) is burned at Kashmiri Hindu weddings to create an auspicious atmosphere. Burning esfand seeds is also common in Persian culture, as in Persian weddings, to ward off the evil eye. In Yemen, an old Jewish custom was to bleach the flour on Passover to make clean, white unleavened bread. This was done by spreading whole wheat grains on the floor and then spreading a stratified layer of African Rue (Peganum harmala) leaves over the wheat grains. Layers of wheat followed by layers of wild roux were repeated until all the wheat was covered with the astringent leaves of this plant. The wheat was left in this condition for several days until the outer grains of the wheat were bleached by the astringent steam emanating from the wild roux. The wheat was then picked up and sieved to remove the leaf remnants. They were then ground into flour, leaving a clean, white clump of flour. Peganum harmala has been used as an analgesic, analgesic, and an abortifacient. In certain parts of India, its roots were used to kill body lice. It is also used as an anthelmintic (to expel parasites). The ancient Greeks reportedly used the powdered seeds to get rid of tapeworms and treat recurring fevers (probably malaria). In connection with Rembert Dodoens' 1554 'Des Cruydboeks', in Europe the plant was thought to be identical to the wild rue. Medicinal uses fused the two botanical identities with ancient Greek and Roman uses, but were considered more potent and even dangerous. It was available in pharmacies under the name Hamel and was also known as "wild" or "mountain" roux. It can be used for dozens of ailments, and the leaves can be used to treat natural ailments in women by simply putting them in water. did it. Rabies dogs, scorpions, bees, wasps and more. Possibly from the story of Pliny the Elder, it explains how a person covered in the sap, or who soberly eats the sap, becomes immune to poison and poisonous beasts for a day. Other treatments include "drying out" sperm, "purifying" a woman after giving birth, treating ear pain, removing skin blemishes and blemishes, and soothing bumps and pain from bumps. there was. All remedies require juice or leaves. There is nothing that does not require seeds.

Peganum harmara seed has been used as an alternative to the ayahuasca analog Banisteriopsis kaapi because it contains a monoamine oxidase inhibitor that allows oral activity of DMT.

In one study, total harmala alkaloids were at least 5.9% of dry weight.

"Peganum harmala (Zygophyllaceae) - NAL's Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Database". phytochem.nal.usda.gov.