Introduction to Liquid Metals

What is/are Liquid Metals?

Liquid Metals - For liquid metals with loose-packed structure, the self-diffusion coefficient decreases in general with the increase of packing fraction. ^[1] To address the issue, in this work, liquid metals (LMs) have been used as the interconnects to enhance the device flexibility and minimize the contact resistance [8]. ^[2] A well-recognized local pseudopotential is utilized to study the electrical transport properties such as electrical resistivity ( ρ ), thermal conductivity ( σ ) and thermoelectric power ( TEP ) of some liquid metals. ^[3] In this regime, the conductivities agree better with predictions from the Ziman theory of liquid metals. ^[4] Various heat transfer systems based on liquid metals have been investigated, and consequently, significant advances in liquid metal material properties, industrial thermal management, and solar power generation have been achieved. ^[5] Besides the dendrite-free feature, liquid metals can also promise various high-energy-density battery designs on the basis of unique materials properties. ^[6] plasmas and liquid metals. ^[7] We demonstrate the efficacy of this approach for both solid and liquid metals and compare results between independent and unified machine-learning models for solid and liquid aluminum. ^[8] This allows us to study the oscillatory convective modes, sidewall modes and broadband turbulent flow that develop in liquid metals before the advent of steady columnar modes. ^[9] Particular attention is paid to the development and improvement of various methods for measuring the density of liquid metals and alloys. ^[10] The review paper starts with the applications of liquid metals and then concentrates on lead and lead–bismuth eutectic used in Gen IV nuclear reactors and accelerator-driven systems. ^[11] The versatility of our approach allows a variety of fillers to be incorporated in liquid metals, potentially allowing filler-specific “fit for purpose” materials. ^[12] The present concept of magnetic force visualization can meaningfully be implemented in different multiphysical areas of magnetohydrodynamic convection involving ferrofluid, nanofluids, porous media, plasma, electrolytes, heat generation, thermal radiation, hybrid nanofluids, bioconvection, biomedical science, liquid metals, material processing, geophysical or astrophysical plasma process. ^[13] The principle of gravitational driving can be applied to the design of reconfigurable antennas for other types of liquid metals. ^[14] Coating of liquid metals on electrospun elastomeric fibre mats leads to the realization of conducting buckled meshes that can be stretched up to 1,800% strain while preserving both stable electrical properties and permeability to air and moisture. ^[15] The fabrication techniques include the state-of-the-art developments of the vapor-phase-based deposition methods and novel van der Waals (vdW) exfoliation approaches for fabrication both amorphous and crystalline 2D nanomaterials with a particular focus on the chemical vapor deposition (CVD), atomic layer deposition (ALD) of 2D semiconductors and their heterostructures as well as on vdW exfoliation of 2D surface oxide films of liquid metals. ^[16] The effects of parameters used for tuning the interionic pair interaction of the Ashcroft’s pseudopotential model on the temperature-dependent atomic transport properties of liquid Al have been studied employing the Universal Scaling Laws (USLs) and Hard Sphere (HS) theories of liquid metals. ^[17] Liquid metals are an ideal candidate for flexible devices; however, the high surface tension and poor surface wettability restrict their application on diverse substrates. ^[18] In this study, multi-walled carbon nanotube-filled polydimethylsiloxane (CNT/PDMS) composites with high-performance and tunable microwave shielding were prepared via the incorporation of liquid metals (LMs). ^[19] Several different interfacial forces affect the free surface of liquid metals during metal additive manufacturing processes. ^[20] Lead-based liquid metals (LLMs) such as lead–bismuth eutectic (LBE) and lead, are currently the most interesting candidate coolants for fast reactors because of their excellent physical properties, which can improve safety and reduce costs. ^[21] Gallium-based liquid metals (LMs) are emerging candidates for the development of metal/polymer-based flexible circuits in wearable electronics. ^[22] Herein, a perspective is presented to highlight the utility of electrochemical methods as applied to the study of liquid metals. ^[23] Liquid metal-based applications are limited by the wetting nature of polymers toward surface-oxidized gallium-based liquid metals. ^[24] Liquid metals are a prototypical example of complex systems extensively studied from the sixties on, now re-emerging as powerful functional materials for unconventional and broad spectrum applications. ^[25] Gallium-based liquid metals, such as the eutectic gallium–indium (EGaIn) being an electrically conductive liquid phase at room temperature, have attracted immense interests as a promising candidate for deformable conductor. ^[26] The features of the use of liquids with the addition of metal nanopowders or based on liquid metals, as well as hollow droplets in the form of microspheres or hollow granules are considered. ^[27] Liquid metals, such as Ga and eutectic Ga-In, have been extensively studied for various applications, including flexible and wearable devices. ^[28] Finally, the feasibility of new liquid metal batteries is discussed along with their distinct chemistries and performance characteristics to answer the question of how liquid metals can be accessible for next-generation battery systems. ^[29] Although there have been many efforts for decades, a resurgence of interest in liquid metals (LMs) for sensing and wiring functional properties of materials in soft wearable electronics has brought great advances in wearable electronics and materials. ^[30] gases, oils, thermal oils, nanofluids, and liquid metals, are adopted for optimization. ^[31] The non-linearity acoustic parameter (B/A) has been computed for six pure liquid metal alloys (Na, K, Rb, Cs, Pb and Sn), four liquid metal alloys (K-Rb, Na-Cs, Pb-Sn and Na-K) and other several liquid metals at different temperatures. ^[32] It has been known since the late 1800s that electrocapillarity—the use of potential to modulate the electric double layer on the surface of metals in electrolyte—lowers the interfacial tension of liquid metals. ^[33] Spherical Couette flows in liquid metals are a suitable candidate for generating magnetic dynamo states in the laboratory. ^[34] , use of liquid metals. ^[35] This paper presents a rapid-manufacturing technique using a PolyJet 3D-printer for creating soft microfluidic substrates embedded with liquid metals to fabricate stretchable conductors and pressure sensors. ^[36] Liquid metals and alloys are attracting renewed attention owing to their potential for application in various advanced technologies. ^[37] Liquid metals (LM) have shown a very broad development prospect over the past decades. ^[38] In this study, a new conceptual bubble system based on liquid metals, whose surface tension is nearly eight times larger than that of water, is proposed and demonstrated. ^[39] The CSMS contains two key functional materials: liquid metals and magnetic powders both with low Young's modulus, allowing for sensing compressibility and stretchability simultaneously. ^[40] Dense vanadium-based membranes offer high permeability and perfect selectivity to hydrogen isotopes, maintain favorable neutronic properties, and are compatible with liquid metals such as PbLi. ^[41] Gallium based liquid metals (LM) have prospective biomedical, stretchable electronics, soft robotics, and energy storage applications, and are being widely adopted as thermal interface materials. ^[42] 1 , 1 and 10, respectively associated with heat transfer of liquid metals, gas and water for illustrating the theoretical development made on PITM. ^[43] A macroscopic power law relation for systematizing the standard entropy variation using a composite scaling parameter (MV2/3/Tm) has been proposed, and its validity is demonstrated for both solid and liquid metals. ^[44] Here such liquid metals are proposed as reaction media for the carbonization of low thermal stability polymeric precursors at high temperatures. ^[45] Theoretical models for the band structure of liquid metals were formulated more than five decades ago1-15, but, so far, band-structure renormalization and the pseudogap induced by resonance scattering have remained unobserved. ^[46] Liquid metals (LM) have a high potential for Electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding application, due to their soft feature and excellent electrical conductivity. ^[47]

high thermal conductivity

It was clear from the outset of work on nuclear power that liquid metals are attractive coolants (small neutron absorption cross section, high thermal conductivity, etc. ^[1] The advantages of gallium-based and bismuth-based liquid metals, such as low melting point, high thermal conductivity, nonflammability, and nontoxic characteristic, make liquid metals highly attractive for high heat flux density applications at high temperatures. ^[2] In recent, gallium (Ga)-based liquid metals (LMs) have drawn much attention due to their high thermal conductivity and maintained fluidity at room temperature. ^[3] With regard to heat transfer enhancement, the three methods exhibit good practical prospects, namely using liquid metals or nanofluids as the heat transfer fluid, shaping a magnetocaloric material (MCM) into an enhanced heat transfer structure, and inserting materials with high thermal conductivity in the MCM. ^[4] Gallium-based liquid alloys are attractive due to their unique properties, and they can potentially be applied in the field of flexible electronics as coolant materials for nuclear and liquid batteries, due to the high thermal conductivity and excellent fluid properties of liquid metals. ^[5] Liquid metals are promising fluids for engineering applications since they have interesting physical properties such as high thermal conductivity and low kinematic viscosity with respect to the values of common operating fluids, i. ^[6]

Temperature Liquid Metals

Gallium-based room-temperature liquid metals (LMs) have emerged as promising candidates, and recent liquid metal-embedded elastomers (LMEEs) have demonstrated favorable properties such as stable conductivity during strain, cyclic durability, and patternability. ^[1] Room-temperature liquid metals such as eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn) alloys have the potential to realize physically reconfigurable microwave components and circuits. ^[2] Room temperature liquid metals are an emerging class of materials for a variety of heterogeneous catalytic reactions. ^[3] Room-temperature liquid metals, such as nontoxic gallium alloys, show enormous promise to revolutionize stretchable electronics for next-generation soft robotic, e-skin, and wearable technologies. ^[4]

Heavy Liquid Metals

Since 2000, ENEA, the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy, and Sustainable Economic Development is supporting the core design, safety assessment, and technological development of innovative nuclear systems cooled by heavy liquid metals (HLM) and, most recently, fully oriented on LFRs. ^[1] Gas-lift enhanced natural circulation of alkali and heavy liquid metals is a desirable option for passive cooling of advanced large, small, and micro nuclear reactors, accelerator driven systems, thermal solar plants, and experimental facilities and test loops. ^[2] Typical liquids used in engineering applications and heavy liquid metals are used to demonstrate conditions at which the Vadasz number is sufficiently small to warrant the retention of the time derivative in the momentum equation. ^[3] loss of flow) in a heavy liquid metals Generation IV system. ^[4]

Functional Liquid Metals

Tin-based functional liquid metals (FLMs) including lithium are considered as the working fluid for the blanket. ^[1] Using these capabilities, subcomponents with multiple internal channel systems were printed, healed together, and combined with functional liquid metals to form a high-wattage pneumatic switch and a humanoid-scale soft robotic gripper. ^[2] BACKGROUND With inherent flexibility, high electroconductivity, excellent thermal conductivity, easy printability and biosafety, Ga-based functional liquid metals (LMs) have been extensively evaluated for biomedical applications. ^[3]

Conductive Liquid Metals

Shape-programmable soft actuators are developed through the integration of electrically conductive liquid metals with shape-morphing liquid crystal networks. ^[1] The generator design employs the circular swirling flow of conductive liquid metals (mercury or Galinstan) through a cylindrical chamber in the presence of a strong magnetic field. ^[2]