Introduction to Radical Generation

What is/are Radical Generation?

Radical Generation - N,N‐Dialkyl‐derivatives enable radical generation α to the N‐atom by oxidation followed by deprotonation. ^[1] Combined X-ray adsorption spectra and theoretical calculations strongly demonstrate that Co3+ pyr and Co4+ oct synergistically contribute to PMS adsorption and O-O bond cleavage, and facilitate Co3+/Co4+ redox cycle for radical generation. ^[2] Key to the mechanism is the radical generation that is enabled by electrochemistry. ^[3] The radical generation relied on electron transfer from fluoranthene anion to noncovalent dibenzocrown-ether dication complexes which formed nucleoside cation radicals upon one-electron reduction and crown-ether ligand loss. ^[4] Nucleobases and calf thymus DNA that were maintained in immediate vicinity of such radical generation were used as biological targets. ^[5] This chapter highlights the latest developments in synthetic methods for C—N bond construction using nitrogen-centered radicals by showing selected reactions, mostly reported in the last five years, based on their structural and reactivity features as well as the method of radical generation. ^[6] Based on the results of previous studies, the recent therapeutic approaches are targeting basic mitochondrial processes, such as energy metabolism or free-radical generation, or specific interactions of disease-related proteins with mitochondria and hold great promise to attenuate epileptogenesis. ^[7] Iron-sulfur (Fe-S) clusters are ubiquitous metallocofactors found across diverse protein families, where they perform myriad functions including redox chemistry, radical generation, and gene regulation. ^[8] In this review, we summarize the main mechanism of radical generation and the link with LGI. ^[9] In the present review, oxidative stress through free-radical generation in cigarette smokers has been widely investigated. ^[10] The radical generation process was investigated by control experiments and theoretical calculations. ^[11] Specifically, Cu+/Cu2+ and Fe2+/Fe3+ redox cycles are regarded to be the dominant catalytic sites for radical generation (SO4•–, HO• and •O2–). ^[12] Herein, we report an efficient Fe-catalyzed intramolecular isonitrile–olefin coupling reaction delivering 3-substituted indoles, in which isonitrile was firstly applied as the hydrogen atom acceptor in the radical generation step by MHAT. ^[13] The redox reactivity, cost-effectiveness, and environmental compatibility of solid catalyst play governing roles in oxidant activation, radical generation, and pollutant degradation. ^[14] As part of its dual role, the Hantzsch ester effects a decarboxylative-based radical generation through electron donor–acceptor (EDA) complex activation. ^[15] Liquid cell electron microscopy enables the study of nanoscale transformations in solvents with high spatial and temporal resolution, but for the technique to achieve its potential requires a new level of control over the reactivity caused by radical generation under electron beam irradiation. ^[16] The acceleration of radical generation and direct photolysis by photo irradiation were responsible for the enhanced TBBPA degradation. ^[17] As industry tends to use larger particles, our studies show that radical generation is lower with 100 nm, compared with 25 nm TiO2 particles; further, rutile is less reactive than anatase, a desirable characteristic in the fields of sunscreen, cosmetic and health applications. ^[18] An additional C‒O bond on Fe3O4 surface was detected after reuse, which is proposed to be an OH bond on catalyst as an extra adsorption site and for radical generation. ^[19] While the originally developed protocols for radical generation remain in active use today, in recent years, the new array of radical generation strategies have allowed the use of a wider variety of radical precursors that often operate under milder and more benign conditions. ^[20] Radical generation from metal hydride methodologies has shifted to "greener" techniques including catalytic metal-mediated systems, electrochemical and photoredox-mediated processes. ^[21] Further studies also reveal the noninnocent nature of the solvent, resulting in the propagation of radical generation pathways. ^[22] In this report, we present a one-pot strategy for deoxygenative Giese reaction of alcohols with electron-deficient alkenes, by using xanthate salts as alcohol-activating groups for radical generation under visible-light photoredox conditions in the presence of triphenylphosphine. ^[23] Depending on the radical generation method different properties can be investigated ranging from thermodynamic data, over concentrations in high temperature environments, to chemical kinetics. ^[24] Visible-light-mediated chemical processes have been vigorously studied and have led to state-of-the-art synthetic chemistry since they enable the control of radical generation and excited-state-based transformations. ^[25] While peracetic acid (PAA) are known to be susceptible to decomposition by metals for radical generation, herein we report a novel decomposition process of PAA with TiO2 nanoparticle (nTiO2) for the first time. ^[26] We observed that Oxisol, which contains high amounts of amorphous pedogenic iron oxides, performed better in hydrogen peroxide decomposition and radical generation but worse in p-xylene degradation. ^[27] Data reveal the potent antimicrobial specificity of ferumoxytol iron oxide nanoparticles (FerIONP) against biofilms harboring Streptococcus mutans via preferential binding that promotes bacterial killing through in situ free-radical generation. ^[28] The reaction proceeds at room temperature under excitation by purple light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and features the use of a single, earth-abundant copper-based chiral catalyst as both the photoredox catalyst for radical generation and the source of asymmetric induction in C-O coupling. ^[29] The concept behind the research described in this article was that of marrying the 'soft' methods of radical generation with the effectiveness and flexibility of nucleophile/electrophile synthetic procedures. ^[30] In this article, the effect of an additional pin electrode at the bottom of the plasma jet on a double electrode atmospheric pressure plasma (APP) jet in radical generation and propagation along the jet were investigated. ^[31] Itaconate brings metalloenzyme to a halt Controlled radicals enable unusual enzymatic transformations, but radical generation and management require dedicated systems. ^[32] In particular, the pH-dependence of radical generation and their short-lived nature can ensure localized functionality in the tumor microenvironment and thereby reduce systemic side-effects. ^[33] The generated H2O2 is directly supplied to HRP catalysis for radical generation. ^[34] Based on the XPS analysis, it can be pointed out that the radical generation was due to the presence of Fe2+–Fe3+  on the surface of the catalysts. ^[35] In such mechanism, present ≡Al3+ could act as a reservoir for surface active sites such as hydroxyl groups and Lewis acid sites, while ≡Cu2+ could provide the possibility of electron transfer with ozone for the enhancement of radical generation. ^[36] In the Fe3O4/MWCNTs hybrid catalyst, Fe3O4 helps to produce sulfate radicals and hydroxyl radicals whereas the size of the Fe3O4 clusters could affect the electron transfer for radical generation. ^[37] A major cause of food oxidation is free-radical generation via the Fenton reaction. ^[38] The oxidation was mainly initiated through the radical generation from hydrogen abstraction on the unsaturated conjugated double bonds of abietic acid above 343 K. ^[39] Another reason for free radical generation is decrement of antioxidants and its components intake in diet. ^[40] the radical generation and oscillation) of the entrapped cargo. ^[41] Whilst the originally developed protocols for radical generation remain in active use today, they have been joined in recent years by a new array of radical generation strategies that allow use of a wider variety of radical precursors that often operate under milder and more benign conditions. ^[42] The oxidation of MB was due to the radical generation in the Fe3O4/TiO2/RGO-H2O2 system, and the radicals could oxidize MB before the scavenging by the radical scavenger t-butanol. ^[43]

electron paramagnetic resonance

The rates of free radical generation were measured by electron paramagnetic resonance. ^[1] Radical generation was confirmed by nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, ultraviolet-visible-near-infrared spectroscopy and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. ^[2] The radical generation was identified by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) as well as chemical quenching experiments, in which different scavengers were used and compared. ^[3]

Free Radical Generation

In vitro study confirmed the acid/NIR dual-responsive degradation and drug release, free radical generation and DNA-cleaving ability of EICN, which was accomplished by the corporation of enediyne and IR820 moieties. ^[1] CONCLUSION The two tested poly herbal formulations such as JPS and RF possesses anti-inflammatory activity by modulating free radical generation in IC-21 macrophages. ^[2] A necessary precondition for reactive free radical generation and lipofuscin formation is the intracellular availability of ferrous iron (Fe2+) (“labile iron”), catalyzing the conversion of weak oxidants such as peroxides, to extremely reactive ones like hydroxyl (HO•) or alcoxyl (RO•) radicals. ^[3] CONCLUSIONS The mechanism of action may be that it inhibits local free radical generation, reduces lipid peroxidation and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression in spinal cord tissue after spinal cord injury, and promotes the synthesis of endogenous brain-derived neurotrophic factor, thus improving the microenvironment of spinal cord regeneration after spinal cord injury in rats. ^[4] Antioxidants and chelators are used in anti-pollution cosmetics to reduce the harmful effects of free radical generation. ^[5] Alternatively, diallyl sulphide (DAS), a CYP2E1 inhibitor, rescued from MB + PQ-induced changes in CYP2E1 activity/expression, free radical generation, superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, LPO and pro-inflammatory cytokines without any alterations in nitrite content and iNOS activity/expression. ^[6] Carica papaya role in disease prevention through modulation of various processes, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetes, immunomodulatory activity, and antioxidant activity, suggests a role in neutralizing free radical generation and ultimately preventing pathogenesis. ^[7] Chronic hyperglycemia triggers free radical generation and causes increased oxidative stress, affecting a number of molecular mechanisms and cellular pathways, including the generation of advanced glycation end products, proinflammatory and procoagulant effects, induction of apoptosis, vascular smooth-muscle cell proliferation, endothelial and mitochondrial dysfunction, reduction of nitric oxide release, and activation of protein kinase C. ^[8] There are no pharmacological treatments for this syndrome, but studies suggest that diaphragm weakness is linked to mitochondrial free radical generation. ^[9] Radiation can induce cell damage via direct energy deposition or reactive free radical generation. ^[10] However, little is known about radiation-induced free radical generation in lipidic conditions. ^[11] Macrophage activity was assessed on the basis of free radical generation and arginase activity. ^[12] In addition to mechanical irritation of the biliary epithelia from worms, their excretory-secretory products (ESPs) cause chemical irritation, which leads to inflammation, proliferation, and free radical generation. ^[13] In this review, we explore the hypothesis that NDUFV2 is the only conserved core subunit designed with a regulatory function to ensure correct electron transfer and free radical production, that low gene expression and protein abundance of the NDUFV2 subunit is an evolutionary adaptation needed to achieve a longevity phenotype, and that these features are determinants of the lower free radical generation at mitochondrial level and slower rate of aging of long-lived animals. ^[14] Changes in nociceptive processing were associated with reduced sucrose-evoked grooming behavior without altering acute nesting behavior, and in spinal cord dysregulated free radical generation as measured by DCF fluorescence intensity, altered immunohistochemical expression of the gliotic markers, Iba-1 and GFAP, and increased permeability of the blood-brain barrier to the small molecule fluorescent tracer, sodium fluorescein, in a time-dependent manner. ^[15] Antioxidants are usually involved in several mechanisms of action, including the inhibition of free radical generation, enhancement of the scavenging capacity against free radicals, and reducing power. ^[16] Conclusion: Increased MDA support to oxidative stress in larvae and pupae samples supports enhanced oxygen-free radical generation, as indicated by our findings. ^[17] Free radical generation and oxidative stress push forward an immense influence on the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. ^[18] We previously evidenced increments in free radical generation and an imbalance in antioxidant defences in non-synaptic mitochondria and synaptosomes during hangover. ^[19] To defeat tumor hypoxia, an oxygen-irrelevant radical nanogenerator, PI/FBC, is developed by the co-assembly of iodized polymer PI and NIR photosensitizer FBC, and further evaluated as a remote controllable free radical generation platform for enhancing antitumor efficiency. ^[20] ∼20–40% in NMR brain, (ii) NMR but not mouse brain maintained relatively steady respiration control ratios and robust mitochondrial membrane integrity, (iii) electron leakage post‐ischaemia was lesser in NMR than mouse brain and NMR brain retained higher coupling efficiency, and (iv) free radical generation during and following ischaemia and I/R was lower from NMR brains than mice. ^[21] The synergistic effect of copper ions and iron ions accelerated the circulation of Fe (II)/Fe (III) and Cu (I)/Cu (II), which improved the electron transfer on the catalyst surface and increased the free radical generation rate. ^[22] After radiation exposure, cells were assessed for cell viability, lipid peroxidation, protein carbonylation, free radical generation, and total sulfhydryl content. ^[23] 01), whereas treatment with AMP extract, PURE PRP, PPP or PTX caused decrease in neutrophil enzymatic response (on the basis of elastase, myeloperoxidase and alkaline phosphatase release) and free radical generation. ^[24] sambac normalized various parameters that were elevated by free radical generation. ^[25] The free radical generation in the BT3/amine system was confirmed by the electron spin resonance-spin trapping technique, and the chemical mechanisms related to the polymerization efficiency are discussed. ^[26] To mimic native peroxidase for free radical generation by taking advantage of Fenton catalysis reactions, we designed and prepared a de novo artificial nanozyme composed of ferritin heavy-chain scaffold protein and catalytic Fe3O4 nanoparticles as the active center. ^[27] The blood–brain barrier and blood–nerve barrier are responsible for the development of neuroinflammation via metabolic alteration, free radical generation, and lipid peroxidation. ^[28] The results demonstrated that jaceosidin dose-dependently reduced free radical generation, inflammation accumulation, and cell loss induced by DOX in cardiomyocytes. ^[29] Background: Free radical generation and oxidative stress has been hypothesized to be underlying pathogenesis of diabetic complications like nephropathy and erectal dysfunction. ^[30] Specifically, free radical generation is associated to hyper-metabolic state in hyperthyroidism, whereas hypo-metabolic state induced by hypothyroidism leads to a decrease of oxidative stress. ^[31] Besides, cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) causes free radical generation leading to lipid peroxidation in toxicant-induced parkinsonism. ^[32] The free radical generation and action ratio were studied based on variations of K2S2O8 concentration, ultrasonic power, pH, and the addition of isopropanol (ISP) or tert-butyl alcohol (TBA) in the US/K2S2O8 system. ^[33] The results of the study suggest significant alteration of these oxidative stress markers which in turn suggests significant free radical generation due to OP poisoning. ^[34] Pb2+ exposure enhanced free radical generation and reduced DNA integrity and antioxidant machinery after 24 h; however, SA pre-treatment (for 24 h) ameliorated Pb2+ toxicity. ^[35] We summarized and analyzed the published literature data with reference to the mechanism of free radical generation and the link between chemical structure and oxidative stress related to dopaminergic neurotransmission. ^[36] The photophysical properties of the complex revealed a significant red-shift in absorption, increased photostability and comparable free radical generation compared to plain curcumin. ^[37] Cell death involvement is the consequence of some cellular processes that occur during diseases, including mitochondrial dysfunction, protein aggregation, free radical generation, excitotoxicity and inflammation. ^[38] In addition, the possible pathway of active free radical generation by these photocatalysts under visible and ultraviolet irradiation has been explained. ^[39] To overcome this difficulty, we adopted a kinetic model based on chemical equations validated for mechanisms of free radical generation. ^[40] The plasmonic support to the activated carbon and titanium nanoparticles creates a large surface area, active sites and accelerated the free radical generation. ^[41] Iron is an essential element for humans but iron promotes free radical generation and lipid peroxidation, causing oxidative damage and cell death. ^[42] Fluorescent nanodiamonds are a useful for biosensing of intracellular signaling networks or environmental changes (such as temperature, pH or free radical generation). ^[43] The photolysis rates and free radical generation quantum yields for the three PIs increase from polar to nonpolar solvent. ^[44] Furthermore, oxidative stress parameters and free radical generation were analyzed. ^[45] Physiologically, the effect of increased free radical generation is eliminated by corresponding activities of a network of antioxidants. ^[46] Thus, the present study is a bibliographic research about the biochemical mechanism of free radical generation caused by Microcystin LR. ^[47] RESULTS SCIRI also caused marked elevation in tissue TNF-α, IL-1β, NO, MDA levels and caspase-3 activity, due to inflammation, elevated free radical generation, lipid peroxidation and apoptosis, respectively. ^[48] In concluding, the results obtained suggests that Artemisia herbs-alba aqueous extract supplementation reduces alloxan-induced free radical generation, potentiates the antioxidant defense system and alleviates renal sensitivity to oxidative stress. ^[49] Our data also revealed that conjugate treatment mediated free radical generation and altered the mitochondrial bioenergetics in breast cancer cells. ^[50]

Hydroxyl Radical Generation

The enhanced hydroxyl radical generation in the heterogeneous sono-Fenton process was quantified via photoluminescence analyses. ^[1] These findings clarify the in-depth mechanism of anaerobic hydroxyl radical generation at pyrite-water interface, and shed light on anaerobic environmental effect of pyrite and other natural iron sulfide minerals. ^[2] 6 times that of the Fe2O3 counterpart, the hydroxyl radical generation rate of Fe2O3@FeB was 1-3 orders of magnitude larger than that of other heterogeneous Fenton reagent. ^[3] The series of stages led to hydroxyl radical generation with reduced glutathione, followed by damage in DNA due to oxidative stress. ^[4] The LPMO/GDH system can enhance Fe3+-reducing activity, H2O2 production, and hydroxyl radical generation, resulting in a fueled Fenton reaction. ^[5] It was attributed to the largest surface of facet (0001) of NRs exposure, which strengthen the electrochemical property of ZnO NRs/CM with the fastest electron transfer rate and the highest rate of hydroxyl radical generation. ^[6] Chemodynamic therapy (CDT), as the emerging modality of cancer therapy based on Fenton or Fenton-like reactions, still suffers from low efficacy of hydroxyl radical generation, which requires full. ^[7] The dominant mechanism of MB degradation is ascribed to the ultrasonic H2O2 activation by Cu-C3N4 for hydroxyl radical generation. ^[8] The promoted electrocatalytic activity of Eu-PbO2-3 electrode was ascribed to its stronger hydroxyl radical generation ability, more active sites and lower electron transfer resistance. ^[9] Furthermore, the as-prepared electrode has a high yield of hydroxyl radical generation as evidenced by terephthalic acid detection. ^[10] Compared with UV-C light treatment (200-280 nm), vacuum-UV (V-UV) light treatment (100-200 nm) is advantageous in terms of hydroxyl radical generation without the requirement for chemical treatment. ^[11] The enhanced photocatalytic degradation activity of Mn-Eu-ZnO NPs can be ascribed to the presence of higher defect concentration, enhanced optical absorption ability, high charge separation efficiency, and reduction in the recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs as well as their strong affinity for hydroxyl radical generation. ^[12] The hydroxyl radical exposure was measured to understand the mechanism of catalytic ozonation and compare the performance of two different catalysts in terms of hydroxyl radical generation. ^[13] The proposed mechanisms start through the potential photoexcitation of the iron complex, followed by subsequent oxygen-mediated hydroxyl radical generation reactions that are different for EDDS-Fe and DTPA-Fe. ^[14] The confinement effect was significant in the range of 3–7 nm of CNTs cavity, especially at 5 nm, which was critical to decrease iron leaching and enrich hydroxyl radical generation for efficient pollutants removal by surface heterogeneous reaction (2. ^[15] The enhanced catalysis of Au@Pt NPs was ascribed to the porous nanostructure and formed electron-rich Pt shells, which enabled the catalytic pathway to switch from hydroxyl radical generation to electron transfer process. ^[16] The chemical oxygen demand removal rate constant and the hydroxyl radical generation efficiency (Rct) of the Fe/N-doped CAF were 190% and 429% higher than those of pure ozone, respectively. ^[17] Upon X-ray irradiation, W18@Hf12-DBB-Ir significantly enhances hydroxyl radical generation from Hf12 SBUs, singlet oxygen generation from DBB-Ir ligands, and superoxide generation from W18 POMs, respectively. ^[18] Furthermore, the room temperature fluorescence and quenching analysis was carried out for the determination of hydroxyl radical generation and understanding photocatalytic activity of the catalyst under green light emitting diodes irradiation. ^[19] However, in countries such as China, where photochemical reactions lead to high hydroxyl radical generation in secondary PM, the toxicity of secondary PM becomes increasingly important. ^[20] No pNDA bleaching was observed for any of the reaction conditions tested after 60 minutes of treatment, which suggests that there was no hydroxyl radical generation during the process. ^[21]

Oxygen Radical Generation

Spontaneous generation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) led to the in situ formation of copper peroxide (CPO) nanodots on the BSA-CuS NCs to catalyze singlet oxygen radical generation. ^[1] Low molecular weight metabolites (LMW) are known to be involved in non-enzymatic oxygen radical generation in fungal degradation of wood by some Basidiomycota species, and as part of our work to explore the basis for fungal consortia pathogenesis, LMW metabolite involvement by the causal GTD fungi was explored. ^[2] In the present study, we examined organic solvent tolerance and oxygen radical generation in E. ^[3] The pathophysiology is thought to be multifactorial with underlying lung damage, severe Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), bullae formation similar to one noted in SARS(Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome) 2004, free oxygen radical generation by over oxygenation along with atelectrauma. ^[4] Research suggests these fungi reduce Fe3+ to promote oxygen radical generation resulting in depolymerization of the wood cell wall. ^[5] A number of mechanisms are reported for these effects, some of which are related to inflammation, oxygen radical generation, mitochondrial damage. ^[6] The P2X7R is an extracellular ATP-gated ion channel with peculiar permeability properties expressed by most cell types, mainly in the immune system, where it has a leading role in cytokine release, oxygen radical generation, T lymphocyte differentiation and proliferation. ^[7] Iron dyshomeostasis can result in intracellular iron retention, thereby damaging cells, tissues, and organs through free oxygen radical generation. ^[8]

Superoxide Radical Generation

In addition to its pivotal role in purine metabolism, xanthine oxidoreductase (XOR) is one of the key enzymes involved in superoxide radical generation. ^[1] We also examined the effect of P4 on mitochondrial superoxide radical generation by confocal microscopy. ^[2] Doping with elements with lower electronegativity, like Te, shifts the band potentials of Bi2WO6 to the point that superoxide radical generation is feasible. ^[3] Herein, we first designed NIR alkylated cationic photosensitizers (Et-NB-C12 > Et-NB-C18 and Mt-NB-C12 > Mt-NB-C18), which target the lyso-membrane for the eradication of tumor cells through prominent superoxide radical generation (type-I PDT) via the lysosome disruption pathway. ^[4] For the superoxide radical scavenging capacity, inhibition rate of superoxide radical generation (%) was calculated. ^[5] It reduced ROS, superoxide radical generation and restored the mitochondrial membrane potential in macrophages. ^[6] The most pronounced changes in liver state were observed in animals fed low-protein/high-sugar diet: a marked increase in the de Ritis coefficient with a 5-fold increase in the activity of sorbitol dehydrogenase, and a 6-fold elevation in the intensity of the superoxide radical generation in liver mitochondria. ^[7]

Oh Radical Generation

The much improved photoactivities of the nanocomposites were attributed to the enhanced charge separation through the heterojunction as confirmed from photoluminescence study, capacity of the fabricated samples for •OH radical generation and steady state surface photovoltage spectroscopic (SS-SPS) measurements. ^[1] Strongly oxidized species generated in the plasma field of the PiLP, such as OH radicals, were confirmed by optical emission spectroscopy Increasing the operation parameters (pulse width, frequency and applied voltage) of the power supply promoted plasma field generation and OH radical generation, and affected the NPX decomposition rate. ^[2] We also report •OH radical generation, cement aging effects, TiO2 leaching, and strategies to regenerate photocatalytic surfaces for reuse. ^[3] On the one hand, adsorbed H2O molecules are able to increase the formation of aliphatic hydrocarbon radicals, providing more active sites for ·OH radical generation. ^[4] Iron nanoparticles at the surface of living diatom act as promising catalytic agents to trigger OH radical generation from H2O2. ^[5]

Alkyl Radical Generation

Hydrogen atom abstraction (HAT) from C(sp3)–H bonds of naturally abundant alkanes for alkyl radical generation represents a promising yet underexplored strategy in the alkylation reaction designs since involving stoichiometric oxidants, excessive alkane loading, and limited scope are common drawbacks. ^[1] A fundamental quest for alkyl radical generation under mild conditions through photoinduced Brønsted acid catalysis is addressed. ^[2] Mechanistic studies are consistent with a bisarylated Fe(II) species being responsible for alkyl radical generation to initiate catalysis, while carbon-carbon bond formation proceeds between a monoarylated Fe(II) center and a transient alkyl radical. ^[3] Further, N-methoxyheteroarenium salts play additional roles as a source of methoxyl radical that contributes to α-thio alkyl radical generation and a sacrificial oxidant that regenerates the photoredox catalytic cycle. ^[4] Meanwhile, the mild hyperthermia effect triggers alkyl radical generation (III) which contributes to internal oxidation and degradation of nanovesicles (IV). ^[5]

Higher Radical Generation

Moreover, they have a higher radical generation efficiency than the commercial PI O-benzoyl-α-oxooxime (i. ^[1] In order to get higher radical generation and increased industrial throughput, the source is designed to generate plasma at a high flowrate. ^[2] Near the stoichiometric region, in comparison with experimental data and the FRC-LES results, the FPV-LES approach predicts higher radical generation, but lower CO generation and heat release. ^[3]

Active Radical Generation

Here, we first develop a scalable strategy to inhibit LE via self-propagating oxidation heat release and concomitant in-situ active radical generation. ^[1] More importantly, we demonstrate that PBs with photothermal conversion property largely promotes its Fenton reaction rate under solar irradiation, and PBs as nano heat source in the photothermal Fenton system can accelerate the substance diffusion, charge carrier movement, as well as active radical generation. ^[2] In combination with XPS, ESR and catalytic tests, it's found that the redox cycling of Cu+/Cu2+ played critical roles in accelerating the active radical generation in this Fenton-like system. ^[3]

Chlorine Radical Generation

These studies indicate that chlorine radical generation from excited Ni(III) is operative in the described C(sp3)-H functionalization methods. ^[1] The interlayer is self-oxidized by the valence band holes (VB h+), resulting in the formation of Cl• and subsequently HClO, which is excited upon UV irradiation to provoke consecutive photoreactions for chlorine radical generation. ^[2] The coupling of chlorine radical generation with Cu reduction through LMCT enables the generation of a highly active HAT reagent in an operationally simple and atom economical protocol. ^[3]

Alkoxy Radical Generation

Elementary steps for alkoxy radical generation from either radical precursors or free alcohols are central to reaction development; thus, each section is categorized and discussed accordingly. ^[1] The reaction went through a domino process involving alkoxy radical generation, 1,5-hydrogen atom transfer (1,5-HAT) and copper-catalyzed functionalization of the resulting C-centered radical. ^[2]

Efficient Radical Generation

This novel pathway was initiated by efficient radical generation at the benzylic position of the substrate, with subsequent transition metal catalysis to complete the overall transformation. ^[1] We employ a new photosensitizer-initiator system consisting of cyanine dye, triazine compound and borate salt for efficient radical generation in the red. ^[2]

Cation Radical Generation

The main role of HH-MoS2 was the enhancement of cation radical generation, thereby, improving the sensitivity of the sensor. ^[1] Gas-phase chemistry of cation radicals related to ionized nucleic acids has enjoyed significant recent progress thanks to the development of new methods for cation radical generation, ion spectroscopy, and reactivity studies. ^[2]

radical generation rate

Indeed, rational design of electrochemical processes requires the discrimination of these two electron transfer pathways, as they can have outsized effects on the rate of substrate bond activation and thus impact radical generation rates and downstream product selectivities. ^[1] 6 times that of the Fe2O3 counterpart, the hydroxyl radical generation rate of Fe2O3@FeB was 1-3 orders of magnitude larger than that of other heterogeneous Fenton reagent. ^[2] The synergistic effect of copper ions and iron ions accelerated the circulation of Fe (II)/Fe (III) and Cu (I)/Cu (II), which improved the electron transfer on the catalyst surface and increased the free radical generation rate. ^[3] Physiological measurements suggested that MT not only reduced malondialdehyde accumulation, hydrogen peroxide content, and superoxide anion free radical generation rate, but also significantly promoted osmotic regulation substance synthesis (proline and soluble protein), antioxidant accumulation (GSH and AsA), and the antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, POD, CAT, and APX) in chrysanthemum leaves under heat stress. ^[4]

radical generation vium

The drastic environmental change caused by the collapse of the microbubbles may trigger radical generation via the dispersion of the elevated chemical potential that had accumulated around the gas-water interface. ^[1] MNCs PDT induced persistent free radical generation via facilitating an effective electron-hole separation, polarized macrophages to pro-inflammatory M1 phenotype, and activated systemic antitumor immunity. ^[2] A major cause of food oxidation is free-radical generation via the Fenton reaction. ^[3]

radical generation efficiency

Moreover, they have a higher radical generation efficiency than the commercial PI O-benzoyl-α-oxooxime (i. ^[1] We introduce a general and relatively straightforward protocol aimed at determining the absolute photoinduced radical generation efficiency via NMR monitoring. ^[2] The chemical oxygen demand removal rate constant and the hydroxyl radical generation efficiency (Rct) of the Fe/N-doped CAF were 190% and 429% higher than those of pure ozone, respectively. ^[3]

radical generation remain

While the originally developed protocols for radical generation remain in active use today, in recent years, the new array of radical generation strategies have allowed the use of a wider variety of radical precursors that often operate under milder and more benign conditions. ^[1] Whilst the originally developed protocols for radical generation remain in active use today, they have been joined in recent years by a new array of radical generation strategies that allow use of a wider variety of radical precursors that often operate under milder and more benign conditions. ^[2]